Abortion and the Columbine High School Massacre :: Argumentative Persuasive Topics

Abortion and the Columbine High civilise Massacre   I am sure all of us have been affected in some way by the horrific tragedy that occurred at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado (April 1999). Certainly, our entire dry land grieves at the death of the many High School teens and faculty who were victims of meaningless violence. Sadly, the bullets of two Columbine students took the lives of thirteen pack away.   This tragedy is an outrage, cries the public . . . These teens were innocent young men, and women who had their whole lives ahead of them. . . . They will never have the opportunity to enjoy adulthood, and the wonders of life. . . . There must be something done to curb this violence These types of comments, along with many others, are surfacing in our nation, as our country cries out in disgust and frustration. What are we to do?, we now ask of each other.   I am convinced that the answer to What are we to do? is rooted in the current situation in our country that permits and encourages legalized abortion. Whether we realize it or not, legalized abortion attributes to the great loss of respect for life which shows its ugly face in so many ways in our country. The shooting at Columbine High is one of these ugly faces.   Sadly, as legalized abortion continues, Pope John Paul II says, There will be a darkening of our conscience, making it increasingly difficult to distinguish between respectable and wrong, - e supernumeraryly in regard to the respect of gentlemans gentleman life.   Is it a wonder that when mothers are able to freely kill innocent babies within their wombs, that others will also begin to think, it is all right to kill innocent human beings? Is it a wonder that when a child in a mothers womb is treated as an object instead of a person, that other bulk in turn, will begin to treat others as objects, using them only as a means to accomplish some end?   What are we to do about this violence?, cries our nation.   In order to curb violence and protect innocent lives, our nation must come to understand that every individual is cognize and loved by God that every individual has been willed by God and made in His image and likeness that human life is under the special protection of God and as a result - that every individual must be afforded the first and most fundamental of all human rights - the right to life.

Snapshots of Love Essays -- Personal Narrative, essay about my family

Most of the snapshots of my life atomic number 18 held in the photo albums of my mind. Some were captured by a tv camera, and those pictures I keep in a shoebox under my bed. Im lucky to have shoebox photos of the earliest things I bottom remember. For example, three eld after my third birthday, Katherine Emily arrived. I remember my dad taking me to escort my new baby baby we stopped at a gas station on the way to the hospital and bought my mom candy and a cola.   That day, the camera caught the tiny smile only a big sister could have as she holds one of the best birthday presents incessantly. I dont take up level(p) half of a blue hospital chair as I cradle Katie in my arms. She is wrapped exclusively in white, like the little holder that every baby is. My white, hooded sweatshirt has faint patches of sky blue, and just a tiny crimson triangle of a T-shirt peeks out from behind the zipper. Looking closer, a third person can be seen my mothers wrist-banded hand holds Ka ties full point up. My tiny arms werent quite strong enough for that task.   That was the depression time I ever posed with Katie. Looking at that photo makes me remember all the other pictures I have of Katie and me, even when there was no camera with film and batteries create to go. Its these pictures that Ill never lose.   Before Katie and I went off to school, we spent our days in the tunnels and caves of cardboard boxes and secret hideaways under the kitchen table. Our house has never been short on toys (there were sestet kids born before Katie and me), but boxes have always been a favorite. I remember being able to easily slide by means of the long passageways, my back not even brushing against the ceilings of our tunnels and forts. Katie had an even easier time ... ..., on the right, Horseshoe Falls bubbles under a mist that slowly rises above the horizon. Katie and I arguing against the heavy, black railing, and against each other. Our smiles are sweet and hap py, reminiscent of Katies first birthday.   These two shoebox pictures of Katie and me are just two snapshots in a shared photo album, modify with every cake, thought, joke, and sweater weve shared. In the midst of looking through the collection, Katie yells at me, Hey, thats my shirt   You borrow my stuff, I reply. Not without asking. You had my black skirt for three months. I asked for it. I let the fight peter out, not regard to waste a memory on an argument about clothes. There will be plenty of hair-pulling, name-calling, and angry situations between Katie and me to come. I want to pull round my film for better times. Snapshots of Love Essays -- Personal Narrative, essay about my familyMost of the snapshots of my life are held in the photo albums of my mind. Some were captured by a camera, and those pictures I keep in a shoebox under my bed. Im lucky to have shoebox photos of the earliest things I can remember. For example, three days after my third birthday, Katherine Emily arrived. I remember my dad taking me to see my new baby sister we stopped at a gas station on the way to the hospital and bought my mom candy and a cola.   That day, the camera caught the tiny smile only a big sister could have as she holds one of the best birthday presents ever. I dont take up even half of a blue hospital chair as I cradle Katie in my arms. She is wrapped all in white, like the little angel that every baby is. My white, hooded sweatshirt has faint patches of sky blue, and just a tiny crimson triangle of a T-shirt peeks out from behind the zipper. Looking closer, a third person can be seen my mothers wrist-banded hand holds Katies head up. My tiny arms werent quite strong enough for that task.   That was the first time I ever posed with Katie. Looking at that photo makes me remember all the other pictures I have of Katie and me, even when there was no camera with film and batteries ready to go. Its these pictures that Ill never los e.   Before Katie and I went off to school, we spent our days in the tunnels and caves of cardboard boxes and secret hideaways under the kitchen table. Our house has never been short on toys (there were six kids born before Katie and me), but boxes have always been a favorite. I remember being able to easily slide through the long passageways, my back not even brushing against the ceilings of our tunnels and forts. Katie had an even easier time ... ..., on the right, Horseshoe Falls bubbles under a mist that slowly rises above the horizon. Katie and I lean against the heavy, black railing, and against each other. Our smiles are sweet and happy, reminiscent of Katies first birthday.   These two shoebox pictures of Katie and me are just two snapshots in a shared photo album, filled with every cake, thought, joke, and sweater weve shared. In the midst of looking through the collection, Katie yells at me, Hey, thats my shirt   You borrow my stuff, I reply. Not without askin g. You had my black skirt for three months. I asked for it. I let the fight peter out, not wishing to waste a memory on an argument about clothes. There will be plenty of hair-pulling, name-calling, and angry situations between Katie and me to come. I want to save my film for better times.

Comparing Stereotypes and Stereotyping in Measuring My Blood and The Ar

Conformity and Stereotypes in Measuring My Blood and The Artificial ringtail Adults frequently make conscious attempts to pass on their values and judgments concerning a number of matters to younger generations by sharing their own views. Generally, the advice they pass on is accommodative for one to become a successful, productive member of the general population however, this process of indoctrination can be harmful if the views sh ard by the elder are racist. Gerald Vizenors Measuring My Blood and Flannery OConnors The Artificial Nigger explore the circumstances in which racist separates try to induce others into following stereotypical ideas and how their influence can result to a negative outcome. One reason older people project their negative, racist attitudes is so that they may boost their own self-image. For example, in OConnors The Artificial Nigger, Mr. qualifying acts as if he were the worlds foremost authority on African-American issues since he has i nteracted with them during several brief occasions in the past. In Nelsons uncultured opinion, his grandfathers seemingly unendless experience about dense people is impressive, and for the first time in his life, he understood that his grandfather was indispens fitted to him (257). The elderly grandfather enjoys the rare occurrence of having Nelson find up to him and respect his authority. Generally, Nelson merely looks at his caretaker as just another poor, unsophisticated country redneck incapable of furthering his own well-being however, when the issue of black people is brought to attention, he is finally taken seriously. Otherwise, Mr. Head is just an unsophisticated man who gains his sense of self-worth by abusing minorities. ... ...is the transfer of racist ideas through the use of indoctrination. plot of ground the main difference between the two stories lies in the way a seemingly trustworthy source shares its stereotypical ideas with either a single indivi dual or a large group, indoctrination, as evidenced in both stories, can be hurtful and damaging. Some individuals, such as Gerald Vizenor are able to see the racism often associated with the sharing of ideas, but other, less intelligent or caring people simply accept other peoples opinions as their own. whole works Cited OConnor, Flannery. The Artificial Nigger. The Complete Stories of Flannery OConnor. New York Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1971. 249-70. Vizenor, Gerald. Measuring My Blood. Native American Literature A Brief Introduction and Anthology. Ed. Gerald Vizenor. New York Harper Collins, 1996. 69-74.

How The Ending Of The Novel Manages To End Or Resolve The Novels Key :: essays research papers

To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee is a classic novel that deals with deuce mockingbirds in hoot Radley and Tom Robinson. They dont do one thing but sing their hearts unwrap for us. Thats why its a sin to kill a mockingbird, says genus Atticus. Despite the stigma involved with such an action, Maycomb physically and socially kill two Mockingbirds. This theme and many more are resolved in the books ending.                               One of the starting time key themes dealt with in the ending of novel is that of the first mockingbird, Boo Radley. Throughout the novel Scout, Jem and Dill are preoccupied with one of Maycombs hellers, Boo Radley. Finally, Scout has the chance to meet him, after He gave. Scout and Jem Their lives. Scout, by means of standing on the Radley porch and Standing in Boos shoes and walking around in them, finally understands Boo Radley . Furthermore, when Scout says, he was real nice, Atticus replies back most people are, Scout, when you finally see them, thus resolving the readers and Scouts doubts about Boo Radley. With the description of his hair as "feathery," Boo is immediately identified with the "mockingbird" idea, especially with his slight appearance and fluttery hand movements. He has finally become a real person, completing the progression from monster to human meanwhile, Mr. Ewells evilness has turned him into a human monster, whose bristling facial stubble felt by Scout suggests an animal-like appearance. Another key theme that is dealt with in depth, is that of the routine mockingbird, Tom Robinson, the Negro who is killed trying to escape from jail after he is wrongfully accused and convicted for rape while helping a young woman. At the end of the book, the two mockingbirds collide, as Boo kills curtsy Ewell, the young girls white trash father, in a scuffle between Bob and the Finc h children. As Heck Tate says Theres a black boy assassinated for no reason, and the man responsible for its dead. Let the dead bury the dead this time. During the course of this book, Harper Lee tries to show us peoples reactions when they have to choose between their prejudices and what is right. Tom Robinson is the recipient of unfair racial prejudice, as he finds out how a mans false beliefs can override his better judgement. Boo Radley is also the victim of social prejudice. fair because he stays inside, people automatically hide their better judgement in the belief that Boo is actually a monster.

The Poets Soul as Described in Emersons The Poet :: Emerson Poet Essays

The Poets Soul as Described in Emersons The Poet Ralph Waldo Emersons essay, entitled The Poet, takes the reader into a new awareness concerning an artistic writer. This essay created new insight about a writers handicraft. Emerson shows us how a poet uses his gift to connect a non-artist of voice communication to feelings that he is unable to express. A poet uses his God-given ingredient, the soul, to describe the things that engulf our lives. We, that do not put one over this talent, are given this connection by the writings in The Poet. Emerson resigned his position as a minister to concentrate his life work as a writer. His education and upbringing was rich in matters relating to theology. He describes the poet in terms of religion. He points out the theological term called Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) and so equates a poet to this using triple increments. Emerson calls the poet the Knower, the Doer and the Sayer. A poets soul knows what is going on around us. He expresses himself by picking up a compose and saying whats going on. Most people know what senses they are experiencing in their world We are unable to write and/or say in words these experiences. The poet has this unexplainable talent or gift to share with the world. Emerson describes the poet as having scientific knowledge. He takes language and creates the words to enlighten us about our surroundings. He uses his God-given tomography to create thoughts in the readers mind that were not present there before. These thoughts activate ideas in a non-poetic person. The reader then produces questions and inventions in areas that he shows expertise. Emerson shows the reader how a person without this knowledge of writing is omitted from expressing the lulu of nature. He tells us that the poet has the incredible ability to create images by his words to illustrate the things that we observe. Emerson believes that the poet uses his words to represent beauty (1648). The wo rld is beautiful and it is the poets job to paint his view of this in his words. ... alone it is from the beginning beautiful and God has not made some beautiful things, but beauty is the creator of the universe... (1648).

The Poets Soul as Described in Emersons The Poet :: Emerson Poet Essays

The Poets Soul as Described in Emersons The Poet Ralph Waldo Emersons essay, entitled The Poet, takes the referee into a new ken concerning an artistic writer. This essay created new insight about a writers handicraft. Emerson shows us how a poet uses his gift to connect a non-artist of speech communication to feelings that he is ineffective to express. A poet uses his idol-given ingredient, the soul, to describe the things that engulf our lives. We, that do not have this talent, are given this connection by the writings in The Poet. Emerson resigned his position as a subgenus Pastor to concentrate his life work as a writer. His education and upbringing was rich in matters relating to theology. He describes the poet in terms of religion. He points out the theological term called Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit) and then equates a poet to this using triple increments. Emerson calls the poet the Knower, the Doer and the Sayer. A poets soul knows what is going on aro und us. He expresses himself by picking up a pen and saying whats going on. Most people know what senses they are experiencing in their world We are unable to write and/or say in words these experiences. The poet has this unexplainable talent or gift to share with the world. Emerson describes the poet as having scientific knowledge. He takes language and creates the words to enlighten us about our surroundings. He uses his God-given imagination to create thoughts in the readers mind that were not present there before. These thoughts activate ideas in a non-poetic person. The reader then produces questions and inventions in areas that he shows expertise. Emerson shows the reader how a person without this knowledge of writing is omitted from expressing the beauty of nature. He tells us that the poet has the incredible ability to create images by his words to illustrate the things that we observe. Emerson believes that the poet uses his words to represent beauty (1648). The w orld is beautiful and it is the poets job to paint his view of this in his words. ... but it is from the beginning beautiful and God has not made some beautiful things, but beauty is the creator of the universe... (1648).

A Report on the Link Between Management Principles, Functions and Organisation Structure

A REPORT ON THE LINK BETWEEN MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES, FUNCTIONS AND ORGANISATION STRUCTURE ESHUL RAYHAN ID 103718-86 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE nary(prenominal) SUMMARY. 3 INTRODUCTION 4 FUNCTION OF PLANNING LINKING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND organisational STRUCTURE. 5 FUNCTION OF ORGANISING LINKING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. 7 FUNCTION OF LEADING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES ANDORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. 8 FUNCTION OF dictatorial WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. 9 CONCLUSION. 10 REFERENCE bring up11 SUMMARY The motif shows the connection between the four functions of precaution, proviso, Organizing, Leading and Controlling with the Management Principles and Organizational Structures be designed to imply the factors for the fortunate cognitive operation of a business placement like Marks and Spencer.Examples has been drawn to support the ideas and put light on the scenarios in the organization. INTRODUCTION The motto of the following report is to identify and highlight the connection between the management principles, functions and organizational structure. Every organization has the application of these three factors as better outcomes atomic number 18 achieved when they are joined together and implied. The management principles affect the management functions which have a great influence on the organizational structure.This report is using MARKS AND SPENCER as an illustration to show how the three affect on each other. Management is the process of getting activities completed efficiently and effectively through other people. It includes various processes and move which will be further discussed in the following report. There are 14 management principles as stated by Henry Fayol ( Boddy, 2005 ). Many of them are linked with the functions of management which are, Planning, Organizing, Controlling and Leading.The report is to show the relations between the three factors of the business and how are they implied. FUNCTION OF PLANNING LINKING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE Planning is an internal component of management function to carry out the smooth operation of a business. It contains the property of identifying the obejectives of a business by the management team. When the plans are being do, the changes are implied immediately or according to a time span as required according to the current status of the business.For a successful planning, forecasting is very necessary for the management as it helps them to be prepared for the worst case scenarios and to earn more revenues as well. This very function management can be linked with one of the management principles as stated by a French business analyst named Henry Fayol, which is Unity of Direction. The originator defines the principle as the combination of group of people who work together to achieve the same organizational goals and performs the activities in a definite synchronised organisati on to achieve them with maximum efficiency.For example, if we look into a press release by Marks and Spencer during their AGM in 11th July 2011, it is seen that the Chairman and CEO of the association, Mr. Luc Vandevelde announced that the company is dismission to bring a significant change in their planning and thus a change in their organizational structure as well. He too announced the new planning strategies which will be carried out to maximize profits for the company. The plans were implied from 29th March 2001. It included the selling of their let brands only nevertheless not any other external brands anymore.This is done to reattain the fame regarding the quality of own products as customers experienced no extra facilities buying external brands from Marks and Spencer and incomplete the external brand companies nor Marks and Spencer could gain any outstanding revenue selling exrternal brand products. To understand this come into action, the company intractable to ret urn to their own suppliers who had been supplying the very own products dedicated for the selling purpose of Marks and Spencer only. This would result to the attainment of the former business relations and strong future commitments and the ascending(prenominal) formation of M & S business achievements.The second plan was to close down the subsidiary companies which were making losses rather than profits M & S. For example, abide Brothers and Kings Super Market in USA were sold off as they were loss-making companies and were affecting the gross profit margin of M & S. The company also decided to close down the stores in Central Europe as it was not making profits. These plans were made and implied after research being made by the superiors of the company and the structures had been re-organized.This is where the organizational structure comes into action when the company sort out and design the strategies to overcome the difficulties and perform smooth business actions. FUNCTION OF ORGANISING LINKING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLE AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Organizing is the process of combining human, physical and financial resources to achieve organizational goals. It is important to carefully dedicate the resources to maximize profits since resources are always limited. This is synchronized with the Division of Labor management principle by Henry Fayol.This factor of management principle is described by the author that the every duty of an organization is spread evenly among the employees to ease out the process of output. If we draw an example regarding M & S, its seen that the duties are segregated between the employees. The organization is structured from the Chairman to client Service Assistant, where, they have different tasks to complete. This results to finish and achieve goals within less time and with more efficiency as there is a saying that, A load of ten is a burden of one.Each of the employee are asked to perform their own definite task which the n becomes a positive outcome when made total. FUNCTION OF LEADING LINKING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Management needs to exercise the function of leading in order for the organization to achieve their goals. It is an essential part of the management as it helps the management to direct employees to focus on the big picture. Normally management focuses on increasing productivity to emend cost efficiency. To improve productivity employees need direction and motivation.The direction and motivation are usually received from superiors. This can be linked with the management principle of Authority and Responsibility which means to have the power to order the sub-ordinates and direct them to achieving goals. For example, M & S have the supervisors who lead the Retail Operatives to fulfill the targets which are ascertain by the Managers to the supervisors. It follows a chain of command which has the ultimate goal of maximizing profit. The chain of command star ts from the highest level of authority like the Chairman and ends to the Retail Operatives tasks.FUNCTION OF CONTROLLING LINKING WITH MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Management must use the function of Control to maximize employee performance and stabilize the workings environment. There had been always a controversy where it is widely believed that Controlling is a negative term because the employees regard it to be a re exigention. But at the very conclusion, it helps to maintain a strict guideline which the employees must follow to avoid chaos. Managers expect people in an organization to change their behavior in response to control (Erven, 1994).This can be inter related with management principle of Discipline, which is clearly stated by Fayol that there should be certain rules which are to be followed must by the employees. When it is looked into M & S, it is apparent that the company applies a number of rules which must be obliged by the employees to create a better working environment and sustain any internal hassles within the company. Therefore, the organization has been structured in such format where certain rules are set in purpose to keep the working environment healthy and prosperous in respect to business aspects. CONCLUSIONFrom the report it is apparent that Management Functions are greatly influenced by the Management Principles based on which the organization is being structured. The achievement of organizational goals are highly affected due to the implication of these three management factors. It is fair to conclude that, for an organization to make profit and carry out its operation in long run, the application of these management factors are inevitable. REFERENCE LIST 1. Boddy, D (2005), Management Concepts and Principles, Prentice planetary house 2. Online http//corporate. marksandspencer. com/aboutus/ourhistory, Accessed at 12/04/2011

Restricted Earth Fault Protection

A Comparison Between High-Impedance and Low-Impedance Restricted country- computer error Transformer Protection Casper Labuschagne, Schweitzer design Laboratories, Inc. Izak van der Merwe, Eskom Enterprises AbstractRestricted creation- soil (ref) certificate on a transformer is a subject for which at that place has been little attention and, compa loss to other types of egis, very little literature exists. Depending on the system of transformer earthing and crack location, some transformer earth prisonbreaks reticuloendothelial systemult in only a sm on the whole increase in class up-to-date, which transformer original derivative gear security measure whitethorn not detect.Conversely, the join of on- tilt(prenominal) in the sluggish may be capable to detect most or all earth faults, again depending on the earthing method. By consorting an reader put across to CTs installed in correct locations on the transformer, nonp areil endure use ref security system to c omplement differential protection in observe transformer earth faults. Obtaining utmost benefit from referee protection requires that one con situationr many factors, including whether to select lofty- electric resistance reviewer or lowimpedance referee passs. In making this selection, one should understand the theory behind separately option.Historically, only high-impedance REF protection was getable, because of equipment and technology limitations. Today, numerical protection pass alongs include low-impedance REF sections for transformer protection. some(prenominal) types of protection guard advantages and disadvantages the communicates do not perform equally well in all applications. One key advantage of low-impedance REF protection included in a numerical communicate is the ability to use CTs with different ratios and specifications without the need for interposing CTs.One key advantage of high-impedance REF is proven immunity (relay security) to CT saturation for extraneous faults. call to either type of protection is the ability to provide maximum winding reporting against earth faults. There is also speculation, as yet unsubstantiated, that a high-impedance REF element provides superior sensitivity and coverage against earth faults. This base summarizes the theory of classical high-impedance REF protection and new low-impedance REF protection.It also discusses issues such as relay sensitivity requirements, transformer fault actual distribution, impact of fault location on relay performance (winding coverage), CT requirements, the impact of CT saturation chemical reaction on REF protection elements, and application considerations for the two protection methods. contemporary mixed bags very little, but large tend rate turn tails in the electro sluggish conductor 1 2. REF takes advantage of the large rate of flow in the un preconceived ideased conductor to provide sensitive and fast protection for transformer faults cosy to the earth point.REF protection utilise to transformers may be referred to as unit earth-fault protection, and the restricted partition of the earth-fault protection refers to an area defined between two CTs. Generally, REF protection suffer be apply in one form or another(prenominal) to all transformer windings, even delta- connected windings (see Delta WindingNEC/R mankinded). On solidly earthed star windings, we will come out that fault coverage is possible from the first turn above the star point, provided the REF element connects to a CT in the transformer nonsubjective.This high winding coverage is possible because the relay shut ups on the high fault authorized in the neutral conductor instead of on the small fault trustworthy in the soma. On an unearthed star winding or a delta-connected winding without a neutral earthing compensator (NEC), winding coverage is reduced because of the lack of a neutral CT. Unearthed star windings or delta-connected winding installat ions provide phase CTs only (see Delta WindingNEC/R balled), and the REF element operates on the flip-flop in phase menses only. II. EARTH-FAULT CURRENT AND IMPACT ON SENSITIVITY A.Earth- dishonor Currents in a Transformer for Different Connections When direct from the neutral CT, REF protection provides more than sensitive earth-fault protection than does preconceived opinioned menstruum differential protection. However, many fallting engineers are uncertain as to the exact increase in sensitivity that REF protection provides. It is therefrom necessary to quantify what one means by more sensitive. In the following discussion, we investigate the available fault electric afoot(predicate) for star windings (solidly earthed, impedance earthed, and unearthed) and delta windings. ) lede WindingSolidly Earthed For a solidly earthed star winding, an earth fault anywhere on the winding is similar to an autotransformer with a fault on the vicarious side. Fig. 1 explains the phe nomenon. I. INTRODUCTION Power transformers constitute the single most expensive item of primary plant in a substation. To protect this investment properly, transformer protection schemes contain a combination of protection elements, with biased differential protection widely used. Although biased ifferential protection provides excellent protection for phase-to-phase and most phase-to-earth winding faults, this element is less sensitive for single-phase-to-earth faults closedown to the earth point in solidly earthed transformers 1, 2, and 3. For these faults, phase 2 NS x 14 Current (per unit) x Nc In In 12 10 8 6 4 Neutral Current Phase Current Fig. 1 Solidly Earthed Star-Connected Windings With Earth Fault X Per unit of measurement From the Neutral 2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 From Fig. 1, it give the gate be seen that the turns ratio (TR) is as follows TR = and In N + Ns 1 = c = Ip Nc xDistance of fault from neutral (percent of winding) Fig. 2 Neutral Current vs. Distance Fro m Star Point in a Solidly Earthed HV Star Transformer (1) I n = I p TR = Ip x (2) Where Nc = the number of turns on the common winding (on the shorted part of the winding) NS = the number of turns on the series winding (on the healthy part of the winding) x = the distance from the neutral (p. u. ) Ip = primary side original In = fault current Therefore, for faults close to the neutral (when x is very small, on the order of 0. 1 p. u. ), the current satiny in the neutral is In = Ip/0. 1 = 10 Ip.Clearly, the change in neutral current is much great than the change in phase current. Fig. 2 shows the difference in neutral current and phase current, plan as a region of the fault distance from the neutral point 1 2 3 4. This curve was obtained from tests that were performed on a solidly earthed star transformer. (Because results vary for different transformer designs, the authors were ineffectual to locate a formula that accurately describes the theoretical earth-fault current for a ll transformers). Fig. 2 shows that the neutral current (that also flows by the neutral CT) is eternally very high, in excess of 5 to 6 p. . For faults closer to the phase terminal of the star winding, there is reduced current contribution from the transformer neutral. pass along sensitivity is appease not compromised, because the operate current by the relay is the sum of the neutral and phase current, with the phase current now higher than for faults near the neutral. Therefore, in the baptismal font of a solidly earthed star winding, relay sensitivity is not a problem for faults near the neutral because there is always sufficient current flowing in the neutral CT and through and through the relay and varistor to contain relay operation. ) Star WindingResistance Earthed In the case of a tube-earthed star winding, the consanguinity between fault location and fault current is linear, and the value of the earthing resistance determines the amount of fault current. From Fig. 1, assuming that the neutral is earthed through a resistor, we set up see that the following is true In = x V 3R (3) Where In = fault current x = the distance from the neutral V = the healthy phase-to-phase voltage R = the value of the earthing resistor Equation 3 presents a linear relationship between the fault location and the neutral current available to operate the relay.For small values of x, In is small and there may not be sufficient current to operate the relay. Therefore, for a resistanceearthed star winding, relay sensitivity is authorised for faults near the neutral. The value of x where the relay will begin operation is related directly to the relay operating current and the CT lineaments, i. e. , how much magnetizing current the CTs on the healthy phases will require. 3) Delta WindingNEC/R Earthed In the case of a delta winding, there is always sufficient voltage to read fault current through the fault and NEC/R.In theory, there is always at least half the phase-to -earth voltage available to drive the fault. This results in sufficient fault current, and relay sensitivity is not an issue 3. 3 Because delta-connected windings do not defecate a star point, you bum use the so-called balanced earth-fault affiliation or hybrid REF protection flow in cases where the source is on the delta side of the transformer. In this case, the neutral CT is excluded from the circuit and the three-phase CTs are all connected in parallel with the relay element.The zone of protection is still only the delta winding of the transformer. The balanced earth-fault connection may also be applied to an unearthed star winding. III. RESTRICTED EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION THEORY To apply REF protection on star-connected transformers, connect the three-phase CTs in star, and connect this combination to a CT in the neutral leg of the transformer, NER or NEC, as shown in Fig. 3. These CT connections provide a path for the zero-phase sequence currents to enunciate in the CTs du ring out-of-door faults, but they force the current through the relay for internal faults.Therefore, the REF relay provides protection for all earth faults that fall in the area between the phase and neutral CTs. Any fault outside this area should be covered by alternative protection dos. Red uninfected Blue IFp Inp Ins Relay Ins Fig. 5 Internal Fault Indicating Operation on a Delta Winding With NEC A hybrid REF protection function may also be applied to a delta winding without an NEC. The hybrid REF excludes the neutral CT from the circuit and the three phase CTs are all connected in parallel with the relay element. This is called a balanced earth-fault connection.The zone of protection is still only the delta winding of the transformer. The hybrid REF function feces also be applied to an unearthed star winding. A. High-Impedance REF Relay Element The high-impedance REF relay is normally a currentoperated relay with a resistor in series that provides stabilization. Generally, i t may be one of two different types. The first type has internal resistors and has a voltage setting. In this type, the resistors are effectively switched in and out to change the setting and therefore the value of the stabilizing voltage.The second type has an international variable resistor where the setting is weighd in ohms and applied by changing the resistance of the variable resistor. 1) Design Considerations A number of design considerations must be taken into consideration when designing a high-impedance REF scheme. The most Copernican considerations are described here The ratio of the phase and neutral CTs must always be the aforementioned(prenominal). In customary, the CTs should have the alike saturation characteristics. The kneepoint voltage must be higher than the stabilization voltage for external faults. The voltage across the relay and CTs (all in parallel) should be kept at in force(p) levels while still being sufficiently high to allow operation of the r elay when required. The magnetizing current of the CTs depends on the voltage across it, but too high a voltage results in higher magnetizing current that ledes to a less sensitive scheme. In most cases, a metal oxide varistor (MOV) or surge arrestor is connected across the parallel connection of the CTs and relay to clamp the voltage to a safe limit, without affecting relay operation.The MOV protects the relay against high voltages developed during inzone faults. Sufficient current still flows through the relay to ensure operation 5. Relay Relay Fig. 3 Basic Design of an REF Function Fig. 4 shows an external earth fault on the star (source) side of a transformer, and Fig. 5 shows an in-zone fault on the delta side of a transformer. Currents are in per unit. In Fig. 4, the zero-sequence infeed for an upstream red phase-to-earth fault circulates between the neutral CT and the red-phase CT, and no operating current can flow through the relay element.In Fig. 5, in the case of the in- zone fault on the delta winding, it is clear that all the fault current flows through the neutral CT (IFp = Inp) and nothing flows in the phase CT. Therefore, the secondary CT current has to flow through the relay element for this element to operate. At this stage, we simplify the scenario by not taking into account the magnetization of the other CTs. Red gabardine Blue IF Relay IF Inp Inp Ins Inp Inp Ins Fig. 4 ing External Fault Indicating Relay Stability on a Star-Connected Wind- 2) Setting Considerations The high-impedance REF scheme is set such that it is stable for a maximum through fault with one of the CTs completely stark(a). Calculate VS, the stabilizing voltage, as follows Vs = I f max ( RCT + RL ) n (4) Another important factor in the design of an REF scheme is the lower limit allowable knee-point voltage of the phase and neutral CTs. This value is necessary during the design phase of the high-impedance REF scheme to ensure adequately specified CTs.To ensure that the CT does not saturate at the operating voltage, many engineers use a safety factor of 2. The knee-point voltage can be calculated as follows Where Vs = the stabilizing voltage Ifmax = the maximum through-fault current detectable by the relay RCT = the winding resistance of the CT RL = the total lead resistance of the longest conductor between the relay and neutral or phase CTs n = the turns ratio of the CT In cases where the earth-fault current is limited through an NER or NEC/R, use the three-phase fault current as the maximum condition.With all four CTs of the uniform ratio, we expect the phase CTs (not the neutral CT) to saturate for external faults, because the three-phase fault current is higher than the earth-fault current. Therefore, we can ignore the resistance of the leads between the saturated phase CT and the relay. (The saturated phase CT and the relay are not necessarily near each other, so the lead resistances between them are not negligible). Phase CTs are generally located in close proximity to one another, so lead resistances between these CTs are negligible.VS is the value of the stabilizing voltage across the relay for maximum through-fault current and one saturated CT. The relay setting, Vset, is still unknown. If the voltage applied to the relay exceeds Vset, we expect the relay to operate. The most sensitive setting that can be applied is Vset = VS. Because network parameters change (higher fault current for example), Vset is usually selected higher than VS to allow for a safety margin. To ensure great stability, one would select relay operating current greater than the sum of the healthy phase CT magnetizing currents at the set voltage.This ensures that the largest part of the secondary side fault current is used for the purpose of operating the relay and that less current is used for magnetizing the CTs on the healthy phases. Any mismatch in CT ratio will result in spill current, part of which will flow through the relay. Spill curren t cannot be related to current that flows on the primary side and flows on the secondary side. It may, therefore, cause the flow of fictitious current that results from CT inaccuracy.Not all spill current will necessarily flow through the relay some of the current also flows through CTs (phase and/or neutral) not carrying primary fault current. Effectively, the spill current flowing through the relay raises the voltage across the relay and CTs, causing more magnetizing current to flow. In the case of a through fault, equilibrium is reached between the voltage, relay current, and magnetizing current. Generally, relay current is far less than the operating current, as explained in the computation of the stabilizing voltage. Vk = 2 Vs (5)Where Vk = the kneepoint voltage of the CT Calculate Iop, the stripped-down primary operating current (primary sensitivity) that causes the relay to operate, as follows I op = n ( I R + m I m + I v ) (6) Where IR = the relay operating current m = t he number of CTs needing magnetization (generally three) Im = the magnetizing current at the set voltage (to be obtained from the magnetizing curve test results of the CTs) Iv = the varistor current at Vs 5 From this discussion, it should be clear that the desensitizing factors are the magnetizing current Im and the varistor current Iv.Use Equation 7 to calculate the actual impedance of the REF element. Because Vset is the voltage above which the relay operates, and because the relay resistance is much greater than RCT and RL, you can calculate the relay resistance as follows RR = Vset IR (7) Where RR = the relay resistance Vset and IR are as defined above To verify correct calculation of operating current, it is possible to calculate the voltage across the relay for a specific inzone fault current. If the voltage is above the set voltage, consider this as confirmation that the relay will operate.You can calculate the operating voltage as follows (8) n Because the relay is set to be stable under conditions where one CT saturates, it needs no additive time delays to improve security or its operation. B. Low-Impedance REF Relay Element Low-impedance REF protection is provided with new numerical or microprocessor-based protection relays. Generally, relay manufacturers hold different methods to provide REF protection. In most cases, operation of the low-impedance REF protection is based on the fundamental current, after filtering removes all harmonic currents 3. Vop = ( I op ? n I m ? I v ) ( RCT + RL + RR ) 5 The most important difference between classical highimpedance REF protection and new low-impedance REF protection is the insert impedance. As with all numerical relays, the input impedance of the low-impedance REF is very low compared to high-impedance relays. For example, a lowimpedance relay typically has an input impedance of 0. 1 VA. At 1 A nominal rating, this computes to 0. 1 W. On the other hand, for a high-impedance REF relay with a voltage set ting of century V and a 20 mA operating current, the input impedance is 5 kW. This is a significant difference.Low-impedance REF protection does not have the same inherent stability against CT saturation for external faults as does high-impedance REF protection. A second significant difference is that the operating current of the low-impedance REF protection is not realized by CT connection. With low-impedance REF, the relay measures all four CTs necessary to realize the element. Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 show the wiring and CT connections of the low-impedance REF elements. Fig. 6 shows the fault currents for an external fault on the primary star-connected side of a transformer, and Fig. shows an external fault on the secondary deltaconnected side of the transformer. Inp Red White Blue Ins IF + A Red White Blue Ins + A Inp Ins + Fault IF + B + C N Ins Inp IF Inp Inp Fig. 8 Low-Impedance REF Connections With Internal Earth Fault on a Star-Connected Winding Red White Blue + + C B A IF Fault IF Ins N Ins Fig. 9 Low-Impedance REF Connections With Internal Earth Fault on a Delta-Connected Winding With NEC + B + C + IF Inp Inp Fault Location B N Ins Inp Fig. 6 Low-Impedance REF Connections With External Earth Fault on a Star-Connected WindingA very important advantage of low-impedance REF protection is the fact that the CT ratios for the phase CTs and neutral CTs do not have to be the same. Most low-impedance REF relays use an operating and a simple mindedness current. The difference between different relays from different manufacturers lies in the way these relays determine the rampart quantities and in the CT saturation detection algorithm of each relay. Note that, in the case of low-impedance REF protection, there is no inherent immunity to CT saturation, as is the case with high-impedance REF protection.The following different methods are used to determine the restraint and operating current Use of the symmetricalness current Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic as the restraint curr ent and the differential current Id = Ia + Ib + Ic In as the operating current. (9) 2. Use of the residuum current Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic as the operating current and the neutral current In as the restraint current. (10) From Fig. 7, it may be seen that Ia = Ib = 0 for a blue-phase out-of-zone fault on the delta side of the transformer. From this, it is clear that Ic = IF = Ins.From Equation 9 above, one can see that the differential current can be defined as follows Id = Ia + Ib + Ic In = 0 + 0 +(Ins) (Ins) = 0 and Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic = Ins This shows clearly that there is restraint current but no differential or operating current for an external fault. From Equation 9 it can be shown that the following relationships are true Id = Ins and Ir = 0 1. Ins C + B + A Ins IF N IF Fault Location Fig. 7 Low-Impedance REF Connections With External Earth Fault on a Delta-Connected Winding With NEC Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 show the same relay and CT connections for a low-impedance REF relay.They also s how the current flow for in-zone faults on the primary star-connected and secondary delta-connected sides of the transformer, respectively. 6 This means that, while there is a large amount of differential or operating current, there is no restraining current. This can be shown similarly for in-zone and external faults on the star side of the transformer. Because of the nature of the protection, classical lowimpedance REF protection cannot be used as a balanced earthfault protection on an unearthed transformer or on a transformer with only three phase CTs and no neutral CT.In short, it is because the low-impedance REF protection requires a restraint and an operating current, at least one of which is also derived from the neutral CT. When a neutral CT is not provided, a low-impedance REF protection cannot be used to protect an unearthed transformer. However, most numerical relays provide a number of protection elements for each winding. To realize balanced earth-fault protection on an unearthed star-connected transformer or a delta-connected transformer, connect the CTs as explained under Delta WindingNEC/R Earthed, and associate the CT input with an earth-fault element in the relay. ) Design Considerations Because of the inherently unstable nature of the lowimpedance REF element, it may misoperate during external faults, especially in the case of faults not involving earth as phase-to-phase and three-phase faults, when one of the phase CTs saturates. Various manufacturers of REF protection relays have each developed additional supervision elements to improve security during external faults while up sensitivity during in-zone faults. every last(predicate) these relays scale the CT ratios automatically between the phase and neutral CTs to compare the different values on an equal basis. ) produce A 6 7 This relay look ats use of the direction change of the operating current for in-zone and external faults. It derives a zerosequence operating current from the phase CTs (Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic) and a polarizing current from the neutral CT (In). It then compares the direction of operating (Ir) and polarizing (In) currents. CT saturation logic is necessary to determine whether any existing zero-sequence operating current is from saturation of one or more CTs during a three-phase fault, or from an actual earth fault. CT saturation detection comes from a overbearingsequence restraint factor supervising the REF operation.The relay compares the positive-sequence current multiplied by the positive-sequence restraint factor (generally set to approximately 0. 1) with the zero-sequence operating current. For earth faults, the positive-sequence and zero-sequence currents are equal, so the result of this comparison will always be a logical 0, indicating no CT saturation. If zero-sequence exists as a result of CT saturation, CT saturation detection asserts whenever the ratio of zero-sequence to positive-sequence current is less than the positive-sequence restraint factor.Using the reasoning that current must flow in the transformer neutral for an earth fault, the relay enables the REF element only if the neutral current exceeds a threshold. supervision the REF element with the neutral current provides additional security against zero-sequence current in the line CTs resulting from CT saturation. Therefore, the relay enables the REF element only if the line CTs measure zero-sequence current and if the current in the neutral CT exceeds a getaway setting. The zero-sequence current bracer setting is therefore also the relay sensitivity.The zero-sequence pickup must be set higher than any natural zero-sequence current caused by load, CT mismatch/spill current, or any other unbalance. The minimum operating current of the relay is 5 percent of rated current (In). The guiding element then compares the operating ( residue phase current) and polarizing (neutral) currents and indicates a forward or suppress direction. A forward direction ind ication is for an in-zone fault, and a reverse direction is for an external fault.The fault is said to be in-zone when the residual and neutral currents are in phase it is reversed if the residual and neutral currents are 180 out of phase. b) Product B The basic principle of operation for this relay is to compare the residual (restraint) current Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic with the differential current Id = Ia + Ib + Ic In, Where Ia, Ib, and Ic = the respective phase currents the neutral current flowing in the transIn = former as a result of the fault The relay compensates internally for the difference in CT ratios between phase and neutral CTs.In addition, the relay has a biased differential characteristic that you can set in such a way that the relay is desensitized for big differences in CT specifications and subsequent quiescent spill current under normal load conditions. In this case, the relay achieves stability for a through fault by increasing the restraint current when it detects a fault. The bias setting should still be set as sensitive as possible to ensure relay operation for most faults. The biased differential characteristic of this relay has a fixed slope of 1. 05 p. u. The relay will trip if 1) Id / Ir exceeds 1. 5 and 2) Id exceeds the Id pickup or threshold setting. The purpose of the restraint function is to compensate for CT errors and mismatches and to ensure stability during maximum through-fault conditions. The latter may cause CT saturation, and the bias characteristic provides additional stability against CT saturation. The relay has a minimum operating current of 5 percent of nominal current, or 0. 05 In. c) Product C 8 Similarly to Product A above, this relay uses the residual current calculated from the three phase CTs where Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic and the neutral current In for the REF protection.During an in-zone fault, neutral current will always flow irrespective of the transformer winding connection and earthing arrangement. The residual curr ent depends on the transformer winding connection and earthing arrangement. In this case, if residual current exists, it will be in phase with the neutral current. During an external fault, the neutral and residual currents will be equal in magnitude and 180 out of phase. The relay uses In only as the operating current, and this current is always present during an in-zone fault. The relay pro- 7 ides a stabilizing method for CT saturation for through faults. both the current magnitude and phase of the residual and neutral currents stabilize the REF protection. The stabilizing or restraint current is defined as follows I res = k ( 3I n ? 3I r ? 3I n + 3I r ) (11) Where k = a stabilization factor In and Ir are as defined previously An examination of Equation 11 for both internal and external faults reveals that there is no effective restraint for internal faults because the value of restraint is always ostracise for internal faults.Therefore, the relay has maximum sensitivity, an d small earth-fault currents can cause tripping of REF protection. The restraint for external faults is always positive and larger than the operating current, if the operating and restraint quantities are either in phase or 180 out of phase. During CT saturation, these angles may be different, resulting in reduced restraint for external faults. To prevent reduction of restraint, the relay calculates the angle between the operating and restraint quantities and then allows operation for a certain angle range and blocks operation for another angle range.For this specific relay, the angle is fixed at cx. No operation is possible if the angle between the operating and restraint quantities is greater than 110, irrespective of any other values of operating and restraint current magnitude. The stabilizing factor (k) is equal to 2 and is fixed. The relay provides further supervision by comparing the neutral current with the sum of the magnitudes of the three phase currents and the neutral c urrent. The relay provides a settable pickup and slope and allows tripping above the characteristic.The relay has a minimum operating current of 5 percent of nominal current, or 0. 05 In. d) Product D 9 The supplier markets this product as an earth differential function with an additional directional check. The relay, therefore, uses a typical biased differential earth-fault characteristic supervised by a directional element. The relay calculates the bias and differential current, where the differential current is the vector difference between the neutral current (measured by the neutral CT) and the residual current where Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic.The bias current is the highest of the three phase currents and the neutral current. The relay has a base sensitivity range of 5 percent (maximum sensitivity) to 50 percent (minimum sensitivity) for the differential current. This sensitivity value is valid from 0 to 1. 25 p. u. bias current. The bias characteristic has two slopes. The first slope is fixed at 70 percent, and the second is fixed at 100 percent. The first slope is valid from 1. 25 p. u. to a point corresponding to a 1 p. u. differential current. The second slope is valid beyond 1. 25 p. u.The directional element uses the neutral current as a reference because direction for this current is always the same for both in-zone and external faults. The relay compares the residual current with the neutral current in the vector plane. For an internal fault, the residual and neutral currents are out of phase. For an external fault, the residual and neutral currents are in phase. For the directional element, the relay compares the second harmonic current in the neutral CT with the fundamental component. If the second harmonic current is greater than a pre-set value, the REF element is disabled.This is a form of second harmonic blocking that provides additional security against operation during inrush but increased dependability during inzone faults. The relay has a minim um operating current of 5 percent of nominal current, or 0. 05 In. e) Product E 10 This relay calculates the differential current as Id = Ia + Ib + Ic + In and the residual current as Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic. Restraining current is the maximum of the positive-sequence, negativesequence, or zero-sequence current in the residual current. During external faults, the zero-sequence component of the residual current provides maximum restraint.The relay calculates the zero-sequence component as the amplitude of the vector difference between the neutral and residual current. During an external fault, the neutral and residual currents are in phase, so the resulting bias will be twice the neutral current. For an in-zone fault, the residual and neutral currents are out of phase so the restraint will be less than the neutral current. As previously stated, an external phase-to-phase fault can cause misoperation because of CT saturation. The negativesequence restraining quantity provides maximum restra int during such an external phase-to-phase fault.This relay uses a method where the level of restraint increases after a number of cycles. This method ensures the most sensitive relay operation upon energization of a faulty transformer. When the restraint increases, security improves for external faults. The positive-sequence restraining quantity is intended to provide maximum restraint during symmetrical conditions such as three-phase faults and load. The relay uses a complicated algorithm to determine the value of the positive restraint component. Discussion of this algorithm is beyond the scope of this paper.The relay has a conventional bias characteristic with a pickup setting and slope setting. Both settings can be modified. 2) Setting Considerations for Maximum Sensitivity Some product-specific setting considerations have been discussed previously in this paper. Most relays have a minimum pickup level of 50 mA. Although all low-impedance REF relays this paper discusses have ad ditional supervision for improved security, many manufacturers recommend a pickup setting greater than the steady-state neutral current resulting from load unbalance (quiescent zero-sequence current).This ensures that the relay picks up for actual faults, not for load unbalance. This practice reduces scheme sensitivity, because a greater operating current setting increases the minimum primary operating current. In cases where a biased earth differential protection is provided, the bias setting serves mainly to prevent the relay from operating for external faults resulting from CT saturation and other lesser important factors. These characteristics are fairly 8 fixed, and security against operation for external faults is almost guaranteed. IV.SENSITIVITY ISSUES This paper stated previously that relay sensitivity is not of great vex for faults on either solidly earthed star windings or impedance-earthed delta windings. There is always sufficient current to drive the operating element of the relay to ensure operation. Factors affecting REF scheme sensitivity are CT quality or specification, the magnetizing current the healthy phase CTs draw during a fault, the relay operating current, and the resistance earthing of the star-connected transformer. CT performance impacts greatly the sensitivity of the REF element.Lesser-quality CTs can make low-impedance REF protection more sensitive, because the operating voltage is lower and the CTs on the healthy phases draw less magnetizing current. Equation 6 provides relay sensitivity for both highimpedance and low-impedance REF, with slight variations between the two. The equation is valid for the high-impedance REF sensitivity calculation. In the case of low-impedance REF sensitivity, the varistor current is excluded and the relay does not have an operating voltage. Therefore, the magnetizing current is not the current the healthy phase CTs would draw at the operating voltage.A voltage equal to the sum of the lead and rela y resistances multiplied by the fault current would appear across the healthy CTs. The magnetizing current of all CTs at this voltage should be added to the relay operating current to determine the relay sensitivity. The lowimpedance REF measuring element will develop a much lower voltage across the healthy CTs and the magnetizing current necessary for those CTs will be comfortably less than for the high-impedance REF case. Although the low-impedance REF relay minimum operating current is as much as 50 mA, the reduction in magnetizing current compensates for the greater pickup threshold.For example, assume that the CTs in a high-impedance REF scheme draw 15 mA magnetizing current at the operating voltage, and the relay operating current is 20 mA. It follows then that the total secondary current should be 4 15 + 20 = 80 mA. The corresponding primary current must drive sufficient operating current through the relay to produce the magnetizing current necessary for the CTs to operate the relay. With a 200/1 CT ratio (impedance-earthed transformer), there is an implied minimum primary operating current of 16 A.For a typical 355 A NER, the only part of the winding that is not covered, assuming zero fault resistance, is the stub 16 / 355 100 = 4. 5 percent. Taking the same example, assume that the CTs in a lowimpedance scheme draw only 2 mA magnetizing current because of the lower voltage across the CTs and the relay draws 50 mA. It follows then that the total secondary current should be 4 2 + 50 = 58 mA. With the same CT ratio and NER as in the previous example, the minimum primary operating current is 11. 6 A. Clearly, the low-impedance REF function is more sensitive in this case. However, if the CTs used with the high- mpedance REF were of better quality and the magnetizing current were also 2 mA, the high-impedance REF relay would be more sensitive. In this case, (assuming zero fault resistance) the bottom 11. 6 / 355 100 = 3. 3 percent of the winding is no t covered. The transformer protection philosophy 11 of Eskom Distribution division requires that the REF sensitivity for resistance-earthed star-connected windings be such that it can be set to pick up for faults between 10 percent and 25 percent of the maximum available earth-fault current for an earth fault on the transformer terminals.With this in mind, one can perform the necessary calculations to determine an adequate CT ratio and whether to apply high-impedance or low-impedance REF protection. As a general rule of thumb for high-impedance REF protection, the relay operating current should be greater than the sum of the CT magnetizing currents at the set voltage, i. e. , more fault current should be used to operate the relay than to magnetize the CTs on the healthy phases. This generally ensures greater stability. V. APPLICATION ASPECTS As we concluded previously, sensitivity becomes a concern only on resistance-earthed star windings.It is only in this case that the applicatio n of high-impedance vs. low-impedance REF protection must be considered. There are two important factors that may influence the decision. A. The Quality and Specification of the Available CTs Good-quality CTs with a very steep and linear magnetizing curve indicate CTs that require very little magnetizing current throughout most of the operating range. Poor-quality CTs require more magnetizing current. Perform calculations according to the specific CTs in use for a specific installation to determine the suitability of high-impedance vs. ow-impedance REF protection for the application. Perform this calculation as described under sensitivity issues. B. The Availability of Matching CT Ratios If the existing equipment is of such a nature that the same ratios are not available for both phase and neutral CTs, you should use low-impedance REF protection, because this type of protection can handle different CT ratios for phase and neutral CTs. However, if the same ratios are available for bo th phase and neutral CTs, further investigation should reveal whether high-impedance or low-impedance REF is the most commensurate for the application.VI. CONCLUSIONS There is a general belief among many engineers that the fault current for faults close to the neutral point of a starconnected transformer is very small and insufficient to operate the REF protection. This is true only for resistance-earthed star-connected transformers. This paper makes no ruling on whether low-impedance or high-impedance REF protection is the better method, but it 9 provides the information and methods for choosing the more appropriate relay for a particular application.REF scheme sensitivity is a problem only on star windings with resistance earthing, because the fault current is a function of fault position, phase-to-neutral voltage, and earthing resistance value. For faults close to neutral, the fault current is very small. The relay operating current and CT magnetizing current are important in de termining the winding coverage. In cases where there is always sufficient fault current to operate the REF relay, the choice between high-impedance and low-impedance REF is not important.Issues such as available CT ratios for the phase and neutral CTs may dictate the choice. For poor-quality CTs that require larger magnetizing current than a better-quality CT at the same voltage, the lowimpedance REF element is more sensitive. Where you use good-quality CTs, however, the high-impedance REF relay is more sensitive. VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to thank the following persons for their valuable contributions Paul Gerber for his sensitivity calculations. Mike Everton for non-homogeneous discussions on the topic. Veronica van Zweel for the drawings.VIII. REFERENCES GEC Alsthom Measurements Limited, Protective Relays industriousness Guide, 3rd edition, 1990. 2 D. Robertson, ed. Power System Protection Reference Manual, Reyrolle Protection, Chapter 6, Stockfield Oriel Press. 3 P. Bertrand, B. Gotzig, and C. Vollet, Low Impedance Restricted Earth Fault Protection, in Developments in Power System Protection, Conference Publication No. 479, IEE, 2001. 4 SEL-387 Relay Training, Restricted Earth Fault Protection, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories Inc. , Rev 0. 0, July 2001. 5 P. E.Sutherland, PE (SM), Application of Transformer Ground Differential Protection Relays, presented at the Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference, Sparks, NV, 1999. 6 A. Guzman and L. S. Anderson, Restricted Earth Fault Protection for Auto-Transformers Using a guiding Element. Available at www. selinc. com 7 SEL-387-0, -5, -6 Instruction Manual, Current Differential Relay, Overcurrent Relay, Data Recorder, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Date Code 20040628. 8 SIPROTEC, Differential Protection Manual, 7UT612, V4. , C53000 G1176C1481, Siemens. 9 Application Manual, ProtectIT Transformer Protection Terminal, RET521*2. 5, 1MRK 504 037-UEN, ABB. 10 T60 Transform er Management Relay, UR serial publication Instruction Manual, T60 Revision 4. 0x, Manual P/N 1601-0090-G1 (GEK-106490), GE Multilin, 2004 11 P. A. Gerber, SCSAGAAG0 Rev 3, Transformer Protection Philosophy, Eskom Distribution Division, 2001. 12 Mini APPS Course (Analysis & Protection of Power Systems), vol 1, Section 9, Transformer Protection, 25 February to 1 March 1996. 1 Protection Field Engineer. He is currently a Chief Engineer Protection Specialist in Resources and Strategy, a Corporate Division of Eskom Holdings Limited. He is responsible for Distribution Division National Contracts for protection schemes and equipment, general protection technology direction setting and technology management, and the implementation of Distribution mechanisation and Substation Automation in Eskoms Distribution Division.He has authored a number of protection and substation automation related papers. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in federation Africa. Casper Labuschagne earned his Diploma (1981) and Masters Diploma (1991) in Electrical Engineering from Vaal Triangle Technicon, South Africa. After gaining 20 years of experience with the South African utility Eskom, where he served as Senior Advisor in the protection design department, he began work at SEL in 1999 as a Product Engineer in the Substation Equipment Engineering group.Presently, he is Lead Engineer in the Research and Development group. He is registered as a Professional Technologist with ECSA, the Engineering Counsel of South Africa, and has authored and coauthored several technical papers. IX. BIOGRAPHIES Izak van der Merwe obtained his B. Eng (Electrical) degree from the University of Stellenbosch in 1991. He started to work for Eskom in 1993 as a 2005, 2007 by Eskom Enterprises and Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. All rights reserved. 20070711 TP6207-01

Perpetual Inventory System Examples Essay

QUESTION 1.Alpha Corporation is a merchandising come with that sells computer parts. Alpha Corporation uses a perpetual history system. The following transactions were completed by the company during June 2010June 7 Purchased 25 Ergonomia monitors from Office browse on account at a unit cost of $200. June 9 change 6 Ergonomia monitors to Computer World Inc. on account for $350 each. June 11 change 10 Ergonomia monitors to Best Corporation for $3,200 cash. June 15 Purchased 20 Ergonomia monitors from Office Shop on account at $200 each. June 16Paid the accounts payable for the purchases on June 7. June 19 Sold 10 Ergonomia monitors to Milkyway Company on account. The total sales price was $3,700. June 26 Collected accounts receivable from the sales on June 19. June 30 Paid the accounts payable for the purchases on June 15.Requireda. Prepare the journal entries to record these transactions b. Assume Alpha uses periodic inventory system. Prepare journal entries for the transactions using periodic inventory system.QUESTION 2.Smart Furniture Corporation is a merchandising company that sells chairs. The company uses a perpetual inventory system. It records sales at the gross story price and purchases at net cost. Smart Furniture adjusts and closes its accounts monthly. The followings are the transactions in babych 2009 featherbed 1 Smart Furniture purchased 50 executive director chairs from Comfort Company on account. Unit cost of these chairs was $100, terms 3/10,n/30. Mar 3 Sold 40 executive chairs on account to saucy Home for $200 each, terms 2/10, n/30. Mar 8 Sweet Home returned five executive chairs purchased on March 3. The amount is cut from the account receivable of Sweet Home. Mar 10 Purchased 50 executive chairs from Comfort Company on account. Unit cost of these chairs was $100, terms 3/10,n/30. Mar 11Returned 10 executive chairs to Comfort Company because they were in the wrong color. Mar 12 Collected accounts receivable from the sales on March 3 in spite of appearance the discount period. Mar 15 Sold 10 executive chairs for on account to Alpha Furnishing, unit sales price was $220, credit terms 2/10, n/30. Mar 19Paid the accounts payable of March 10 purchase within discount period. Mar 25 Paid the accounts payable for the purchases on March 1. Mar 30 Collected accounts receivable from the sales on March 15.Requireda.Prepare the journal entries to record these transactions. b.Prepare the subsidiary inventory ledger executive chairs for the month.

Night: the Holocaust and Figurative Language

Night by Elie Wiesel is an autobiography in which Elies life during the Holocaust is explained. Elie Wiesel uses imagery, synecdochic language, and pathos as tools to express the horrors he experienced while living through a nightmare, the Holocaust. Elie severalizes his experiences with imagery. Open rooms everywhere. Gaping doors and windows looked out into the woid. It all belonged to everyone since it no longer belonged to anyone. some were crying. They used whatever strength they had left to cry. Why had they let themselves be brought here?Why didnt they die in their beds? Their words were interspersed with sobs. (35). Elie explains how people reacted to finding their friends alert. You can picture how desperately they cried with an understanding as to why they were crying. The two men were no longer alive. Their tongues were hanging out, swollen and bluish. But the third rope was still moving the child, too light, was still breathing. And so he remained for more than ha lf an hour, lingering between life and deathHe was still alive when I passed him.His tongue was still red, his eyes not yet extinguished (64-65). As a way to show control, keep fear and prevent rebellion, prisoners were hung. Elie describes the ill hanging of a young boy as he died a slow, painful death. The imagery throughout the book describes, with detail, things that couldnt be imagined alone. Elie writes his autobiography with figurative language. My soul had been invaded-and devoured-by a black flame (37). Elie no longer felt like he was living. He uses a metaphor to compare the feeling of his whacking to his soul being eaten. All I could hear was the violin, and it was as if Julieks soul had become his bow. He was playing his life. His whole being was gliding everyplace the strings. His unfulfilled hopes. His charred past, his extinguished future. (95). Elie meets Juliek, a man he knew before who played the violin in the Buna band, at the concentration camp in Buchenwald, and as Juliek plays his violin, Elie sees it as Julie expressing how he felt. Elie writes how Juliek and his violin symbolized everyones thoughts and feelings.Using different types of figurative language, Elie conveys the feelings of buck and anguish they felt. The element of pathos is also used by Elie as means to describe his experience as he appeals to our emotions. Not far from us, flames, huge flames, were rising from a ditch. Something was being burned there. A truck drew close and deliver its hold small children. Babies Yes, I did see this with my own eyes children thrown into the flames. (32). Elie describes how the ones that couldnt work were treated.Because children were seen as a hindrance to the work, they were burned to their death. Even babies who harbort had the chance to live life were mercilessly murdered. The idea of dying, of ceasing to be, began to fascinate me. To no longer exist. To no longer feel the excruciating pain of my foot. To no longer feel anythi ng, neither fatigue nor cold, nothing. (86). Elie was in so much pain living, her felt that dying would feel better then living. He was trauma so much to the point where he would even accept death if it came.Elie writes with pathos, as he appeals to the readers emotions. Elie Wiesels autobiography, Night, uses many components in writing a story that would indulge readers as they read how he lived and felt during the Holocaust. He uses things such as imagery, figurative language, and pathos as means to do so. The pain, the horrors, the fear, the defeat felt during that nightmare, the Holocaust things that we wouldnt ever be able to truly understand unless we experienced it, he tries his best to speak of his experience as a survivor.

Civil War in Fort Sumter in American Essay

Fort Sumter is located in Charleston in South Carolina the Fort was famous for its role that it played as a place where most shots that initiated the American Civil War were fired during the battle of Fort Sumter. This site was constructed using the slave labor from the twelvemonth 1829 and unfinished in the year 1860, when the state of war started.This structure was designed to accommodate six hundred and fifty men and one hundred and thirty five guns arranged in terce rows of gun emplacements, On April 12, 1861, there was a thirty four hour firing that was opened by the Confederate succession whereby a Gill more Medal a special military decoration, was issued to the nitty-gritty Service Members who performed their duties in Fort Sumter in the opening combat of the American Civil War.The battle in Fort Sumter was a conflict that ran for decades in America, the origin of this war was slavery in the new territories, which led to the negotiation of the year 1850 that was used to stop the political crisis, but it did non resolve the issue of slavery, slavery was considered by the Northerners as a national vice which was learnled by a number of Southern owners of large plantations who had the goal of spread slavery.Under this, we find that the southerners were more worried about the growth of the North in terms of its population and industrial development. The development of both the North relied on free labor while the South relied on slave labor. There was a division of the United States in two regions that is, the North East and the center(prenominal) was recognized with its growing economy that relied on the farms owned by the families, the industries, and transportation, business with a high population in urban areas and in never promote its slavery outside the borders.While the Southern was jibeled by a developed plantation system back up by slavery, the northern population was said to cast grown quickly than the Southern population, this made it hard for the southern states to have control over the national government. Most of the slaves were not owned by some of the Southern whites who concentrated in subsistence farming, while the most of the salve owners were engaged in controlling the political and scotchal systems in the State.The northern states argued that the slavery was perverse for the nation, whereby in 1776 the north had to abolish slavery with a concern of maintaining unity in the states, within which politicians had a reasonable resistance to slavery, which led to negotiations such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and that of the year 1850.Under this the struggle to end slavery was not the main goal of the war, the war started with the need of expanding the territories of the slavery that was micturaten as a basic in economic, cultural and political differences that led to the rise of the control of the States rights and independence of the Southern States in the country.The attack of the Northern state at the Fort Sumter created Hostilities among the states whereby, the Northern States attempted to defend the nation, we find that capital of Nebraska mentioned during his inaugural address in March 1861, that a National Unity to be get up, whereby there was already a withdrawal by the Seven States. This unity was to be used as a war goal to unite the democrats, couch States and the republicans.In 1863, Lincoln included liberation that permanently removed the division factor that lead to independence of the other states, even though he proposed national official laws against slavery in the year 1858 where withdrawal was increased, the Slave-owning South and the Anti-slavery North, which made him express a concern to stop the expansion of slavery putting in forefront the publics believe that the slave trade was in its way of extinction.In the 1850s, there was a strong political battle that focused on the expansion of slave trade in the territories which accelerated the Southern m ovement towards secession , under this we externalize that both the Southern and the Northern states were threatened by secession, whereby the Southern States had fears of losing its control of the central government to the forces that were against slavery-while the Northern States were fearing that the Southern had already taken control over the government, this led to this civic war.The Southern was supported by the election of the Republican Abraham Lincoln through which most regional leaders feared that he was put in a position which would enable him stop the expansion of the salve trade, we line up that many Southern citizens thought that slavery would be abolished by either Lincoln or another person from the north and therefore they decided to split. revere of racial and equality was also seen as a leading factor to this civic war whereby the Southerners expressed their fears for the loss of slavery that would thereafter lead to the economic losses.Also the fears of racial equality whereby, there was the probability of a doctrine of equality to be set through which all men regardless of slipstream would be made the slaves of a particular region and this would make them demoralized and degraded in a way that they could fight against the slavery. The fear of modernization was seen as a leading factor to the civil war, where we see that the Northern States were becoming economically stable, with its strong knowledge of having aggressive, free labor capitalism, while the South remained in its traditional standards of living.The Northern was said to be having an industrialized economy whereby, it engaged itself in producing of arms, munitions supplies including monetary contributions and transportation while the confederate territory continued to squint and its economy weakened. This led to the North having power over the shipments, steamships, river boats and the navy that made the North to come up with the construction of ships that led to the north to also take control over the river systems thus blocking the whole Southern coastline making its transportation slower and difficult to manage.Various international communities intervened in this civil war this included the Britain and France who, rather increased the Southern States chances of winning the secession from the United States. Under this we see that the Southerners decided to involve themselves in cotton consignment, in which they had an target of making the economy of Europe to be inefficient thinking that it would have made Britain enter the war in order to get cotton, but this ideology did not work since Europe had to prove to have a productive supply of cotton to the British thus the Northern States gained exports at a more British import trade.The Southern failure in the cotton production came as a result of the control put on the transportation systems by the Northern states, which therefore hindered any transaction between any other countries with southern states . In the early 1820s and 1830s, the religious leaders were seen to come up with an opinion of abolishment as one of the methods they thought would help them resolve this war these leaders were termed as abolitionists who attempted various social reforms extinguish the war, among them were Wendell Phillips and Frederick Douglas who insisted for the immediate abolition of slavery.Among the two, there were also other abolitionists like Theodore Weld and Arthur Tappan, who asked for an abrupt action against the war, though the action, was to be a gradual liberation program with a yearn system. This course was also supported by the Anti-slavery men, who were not abolitionists they tried hard to limit the slavery they were seen to be ambitious to end the slave trade in their states this is best explained in the 1841 field of study, where we find that John Quincy Adams presented the Amisted African slaves in the United States supreme court, claiming that they should be set free.These a bolitionists believed that all people were equal before divinity where, they came up with an argument that enslaving another person is a violation of the Higher law. The slave owners were angered by this movement and they defended this fact, saying that slavery was good and that it was received by God.We see that the southern came up with Biblical interpretations that directly disagreed with those of the abolitionists, under which they interpreted the case of the curse of Noahs son Ham and his offspring in Africa, can be used as a validation for the slavery of blacks. In 1830s it was found that the General Post Master of the United States banned the placard of pamphlets that were made to fight against slavery to the South. In this case we find that the Southern States refused to be termed as abolitionists.And anyone who was found rebelling against the slavery was charged with his actions, this is better explained in the 1859 case of, John Brown who attempted to start a slave rebe llion which threatened the Northern States, Browns efforts were to fight against the slavery whereby he seized the federal Harpers Ferry Armory at the Harpers Ferry, Virginia in the year 1859, the ferry had carried many weapons to be used in the war, he was strongly supported by many Anti-slavery members of the Secret Six that provided the financial support for his rupture.Among the supporters was, George Luther Stearns, Franklin. Sanborn, among others. As an effect of the raid Brown was captured by the army that was dispatched to put down Browns raid and he was tried for treason against Virginia and he was later hanged. At the end of the war we see that the South emerged as the winner of the war whereby it is said that the Union took advantage of the confederation in terms of industrial strength, population, and the objectivity of winning the war.Most people argue that the confederate action were only used to bar the defeat, but the confederacy was seen to have won the war by the survival of Lincoln where he defeated McClellan in the 1864 elections under which the aspiration of the southern advantage was ended. With the success in the elections Lincoln was seen as a success in getting the support of the neighboring States, the conflict democrats, liberated slaves and Britain and France.We also see that Lincoln defeated the copper heads and their peace policy. He had found military leaders such as Grant and Sherman who took the advantage in battle over the tie Militia through which the war was won by the generals who feared no bloodshed and by the end of 1864 the South had lost the anticipation to win the battle. Though, the Northern war leaders noticed that the victory over this war needed more than fighting.It decided to come up with ways of encompassing the two goals of the war, where by we see that the secession was to be renounced and all forms of slaves were to be eliminated. These leaders differed completely on the following the criteria of the war and also on the degree at which the national control that were to be given to the South, and the process by which the southern was to be reincorporated into the union again.The war ended in the year 1877, which carried a complex and various series of federal and state policies. The civil war amendments were long-term results divided into three where the thirteenth amendments was that which abolished the slavery, the fourteenth one was that which extended federal permissible protections to the people not putting in mind the race, and the fifteenth one which abolished racial boundaries on voting.ReferencesDonald, D. E. (2001) The Civil War and Reconstruction-latest edition 2001. 700 page survey Davis. W. C. (1983) The Imperiled Union 1861-1865 3v (1983) Fellman, M. E. (2003) This skanky War- The Civil War and its Aftermath. 2003, 400 page survey Reach, J. P. (2005) Americans at War Society, Culture and the Homefront. Vol. 2 1816-1900 Tulloch, H. (1999) The Debate on the American Civ il War period 1999, historiography

Petroleum and Investment Grade Rating

Petrolera Zuata, Petrozuata C. A. case study La Apertura (The Opening) Target Orinoco Belt life-threatening/extra heavy oil accumulation (biggest known in the world) Key Strategy Opening Venezuelan oil sector to foreign oil companies How Profit sharing agreements, operational service agreements, strategic joint-venture associations Ownership PDVSA or subsidiaries contribute10 years), fixed interest rates, fewer more flexible covenants, larger amounts. Cons fund must be raised in a lump sum.Excess funds create a drag on earnings (negative carry) Rule 144A market (private placement market) Pros Like public bonds + speed, underwritten within hexad months Cons nevertheless qualified investors can invest in them Conditions needed hot markets and investment ramble rating What kind of debt to choose? The sponsors should use 144A (private bonds) to fund the handle because of the important advantages and the significant disadvantages which can arise by using the other debt kin ds. Rule 144A has big advantage of time Markets seem to be going in the right direction (Hot markets) What else is needed? (on the next slide Investment grade) Investment Grade Rating Agencies look at 3 main factors sponsors creditworthiness, projects economics and Venezuelas sovereign risk. Problem Venezuelas rating S&P B Moodys Ba2 Petrozuata is strictly connected with countrys risks because it is controlled by PDVSA which is Venezuelas state oil company and operates in Venezuela If Venezuela defaults on its debt Petrozuata will default too unless Conoco Inc. is a subsidiary of DuPont which operates worldwide and has investment grade rating Investing in Petrozuata is indirectly investing in DuPont If you invest in Petrozuata your real investment is also in Venezuela and DuPont Petrozuata project has a real good structure and business projections Same comparables with other oil companies operating in other countries and having investment rate grading Ras Laffan example of oil company having higher rating than the country in which it operates(Qatar) In order to obtain investment grading it is very important to have DuPont in the multitude If rating agencies consider the fact that Petrozuata will repay its debt although Maraven defaults on its part of debt because DuPont wants to mantain its good reputation it might obtain an investment grading If Venezuela is strictly tie in to Petrozuata and has a B then Petrozuata should have at least a B rating plus a considerable bonus because the risk is diversify into DuPont Projects base case DSCR would probably have to communicate 1. 0X Break-even point low enough so the project can cover all(prenominal) operating and financing costs if oil impairments fall substantially Is it a good spate? We would invest in project bonds as they will probably yield a higher return comp bed to the 21% cost of equity. Factors that need to be considered Hierarchy of payments is good (referred to Cash Waterfall) Balance Sheet and Income tilt suggest PDVSA and DuPont are supposed to be solid companies Oil prices are not that volatile fluctuating but arresting more or less a price between $20 and $25 per barrel (suggested nominal break-even price in 2008 $8. 3 per barrel) Lower operating costs with respect to competitors (cash operating cost around $3. 19 against industry median at $8. 55) More than enough heavy crude oil reserves to sustain the planned production according DeGolyer & MacNoughton (U. S. base oil consulting firm) Projects design in accordance with good industry practice complying with Venezuelan and International environmental laws as stated by Stone & Webster Overseas Consultants, a U. S. ngineering and consulting firm What should Conoco take into account? True problem is not very favorable business environment Theoretically, if all contracts are respected and hierarchy of payments holds, the only entities bearing risks are PDVSA and DuPont with their capital inve stment Banks and whoever invests in project bonds according to the hierarchy of payments should be a safe investor doubtfulness in governments future actions could be very harmful.Remember that in January 1976 the Venezuelan government nationalized the domestic oil industry and the compensation package was only 20% of market value (according to foreign oil companies). Lending to Petrozuata is indirectly investing in Venezuelas business environment and doing business with the government as PDVSA is 100% government owned, which has a non-investment grading by rating agencies What should Conoco do? Take carefully in consideration what has been mentioned Make an in depth summary on Venezuelas macroeconomic issues Try to revise the Off take agreement to be sure of having the right to buy the 104,000 BPCD at the pre-fixed price If benefits exceed these further costs then consider equity investment Otherwise the best move would be to take some other entity in the deal to diversify r isks even more Personally, we would be very cautious with investing equity capital as Conoco.

Edi, Wap

CONTENTS 1. admittance 2. WHAT IS EDI? 3. WHY USE EDI? 4. ADVANTAGES OF EDI all over A PAPER-BASED DOCUMENT TRANSFER SYSTEM 5. HOW EDI WORKS? 6. EDI COMPONENTS 7. charge TYPES. 8. EDI swear outS. 9. CONCLUSION. interpolation Everybody uses championship societys of wiz sort or another to get orders, send bills, make collections, determine and s oft what it owes, move goods, and control its money. The tune connections used historically to perform these operations defend birth been the postal renovation and the telephone. A relatively unfermented link is electronic info communications facilities.Your links to job connections ar limited to the mail and the telephone. Both ar slow. Both terminate with that wall of people who feed the estimator and who may make delusions. What your company needs is a better link to vocation connections and that is what electronic info supercede is all closely. To appreciate what electronic selective schooling interchange (EDI) me ans, think about all those orders, invoices, charge bills, shipment instructions, tracing requests, payment instructions, government reports, and the like that your company sends out or receives every day.Think about from each one as a bingle transaction. WHAT IS EDI? Traditionally, the off of in orderion from one company to another has been by paper documents. This is k without delayn as a paper-based organization. These documents have to be manually forwarded and droped to the destination computing device. EDI is the electronic deputize of structured business in fix upion, in standard stages, between computers, EDI eliminates the need for a paper-based system by providing an electronic link between companies. This reduces information entry tasks and improves business cycle clippings.EDI is the electronic transfer of structured business documents in an organization inbredly among groups of departments or outsidely with its suppliers, customers and subsidiaries. In EDI in doion is passed electronically from one computer to another over a state without having to be read, retyped or printed. The information transferred must have a defined structure agreed between your company, and the company or group you send and receive data from. Any company or group which uses EDI is called a TRADING match.Examples of current uses of EDI includes automatic teller machines (ATMs) in banks where EDI is used for transferring and withdrawing funds between polar bank accounts, airline reservation systems, stock win over legal proceeding and car reservation systems. USE OF EDI The data from one computer is normally not in a form suitable to be entered directly into another computer. The data may have to be lay differently before it can be entered into another computer or some items of data may not be needed at all. With EDI, all the data is converted unto an agreed standard format before it is move over the network.The computer that receives the data can then extract the information it requires. utilise EDI implies three things 1. Information is transferred electronically rather than on paper. This means that at that place is no need to enter the data manually in the destination computer. 2. Information is transferred between trading partners who have negotiated trading agreements and have formalized their data transfer system. 3. Information that is transferred complies with agreed standards for the format of the content and the transmission control mechanisms.ADVANTAGES OF EDI OVER A PAPER-BASED DOCUMENT TRANSFER SYSTEM This section highlights the advantages EDI has over a traditional paper-based document transfer system. In a Paper-based System ? A software application generates a paper document on a form. ? Copies of the document are made. Some are passed to inner(a) departments to be filled, other copies are sent to the trading partner via the postal service. ? The trading partner receives the document and retypes the informatio n on the form into their computer. This retyping often introduces errors. The trading partner generates a paper ack instantaneouslyledgement and this is sent to the originating company. The transfer of documents in a paper-based system could take a considerable length of fourth dimension. In an EDI System ? The application program generates a excite, which contains the touch on document. ? The document is converted to an agreed standard format. ? The commove cabinet containing the document is sent electronically over the network. This network links the originating company and its trading partner. ? The file containing the document arrives at the trading partner.It is translated into the correct format and transferred to the recipients application. ? A receipt is automatically generated and sent over the network t the originating company. EDI transmits documents to the trading partners application in a very short period of time and with no human intervention. HOW EDI WORKS? Rega rdless of the format chosen, companies utilize EDI communicate with their trading partners in one of two ways Either they exchange data with several(prenominal) trading partners directly or they interact with multiple companies by means of with(predicate) a central information clearing-house.In the latter(prenominal) case, all transactions are funneled through a third partys computer system, which routes them to the appropriate pass receivers computer. This enables the transmitter to communicate with an unlimited number of trading partners without worrying about proprietary systems, audit trails, variable transmission speeds, and general computer compatibility. Basically, here is how EDI works 1. Prior to any computer work, representatives of two companies interested in exchanging data electronically meet to specify the applications in the EDI standard, which they will implement. 2. distributively company adds EDI programs to its computer to translate company data in standard f ormats for transmission, and for the reverse translation on the data it receives. 3. Then, as often as operationally requires the two companies exchange data electronically in the standard formats. The data transmitted originates from records in the senders database after the sender confirms that the receiver is an authorized recipient for such data. The sender composes a transmission formatted in the EDI standards, the receiver translates the formatted message to a computer record to be processed and used privilegedly.All transmissions are checked both electronically and functionally and the protocol includes procedures for error detection and correction. INFORMATION FLOW IN EDI 1. A come with collects data for its own operational or statistical requirements. This data is edited and added to its own database. 2. Pertinent information is extracted by the company from its database, summarized if necessary, constructed into EDI transaction sets, and transmitted to the company or org anization requiring it for valid reasons. 3. The frequency for preparing this information is determined by the operational requirements of each recipient. . A communications link for transmission is established jibe to the standard communications protocol. 5. The recipient of the information receives the transmission and checks it for its physical characteristics (parity, check character, transmission mode). Retransmission is requested if an error is detected in the physical characteristics of the transmission. 6. The receiver checks the functional characteristics of the data. A message is transmitted to the original sender to acknowledge the transmission and to identify any errors detected. . The receiver processes the information received according to its own internal procedures and timing requirements. EDI COMPONENTS A typical EDI system implements a specific set of EDI by enabling the exchange of business documents. It accepts documents from business software applications, conv erts the document to a standard format and sends it to another software application or trading partner. EDI system converts generic EDI messages (in EDIFACT or any other EDI standard) format to RDBMS format and from RDBMS format to EDI format. in that respect are EDI application programs for software developers to configure EDI to work with the various user application software programs. There is normally no end-user interaction with EDIit is entirely within the background of the EDI system. RDBMS database contains the data to be translated into EDI format and where EDI data is to be converted (and written) to. EDI treats the application database genericallyit reads and writes to the tables and fields specified according to the message mapping created by the EDI Administrator during EDI message configuration.These are done by EDI Configuration programs under the purview of EDI. There are three main components in an EDI system 1. use good- Providers the means of integrating existin g or new applications into the EDI system. 2. exposition Service-Converts data from internal format standards to an extraneous format and translates data from an external format to an internal format standard. 3. Communication Service-Passes documents into a network via the agreed communication protocol.Internal format Transmission Tranmission TRADING files files files PARTNER DocumentsApplicationTranmission Communication BusinessService Service Service Application FILE TYPES EDI creates the next files as a document passes through the system ? Internal Format File (IFF) ? outer Format File (EFF) ? Transmission File Each of these files is described in the following sections.Internal Format File An internal format file (IFF) contains a single document for a single trading partner. Internal format file is principally for EDIs own use. External Format File The external format file (EFF) contains the same data as the internal format file translated into the appropriate standard docume nt format. Transmission File A transmission file contains one or more documents for the same trading partner. Documents of the same type are packaged together in functional groups. The functional groups going to one trading partner are packaged into an interchange set.An interchange set contains one or more functional groups of documents with the same sender and receiver. TRADING PARTNER A Document Type 1 1Functional groupInterchange 1 Set Document Type 2 2Functonal 2 Group TRANSMISSION FILE EDI SERVICES The three EDI services all perform different tasks. The following sections give an overview of what happens in each of three services. Application Service The Application Service provides the link between a business application and EDI. It allows you to send document to, and receive documents from, an EDI system.A set of callable routines is used to transfer documents from the business application into EDI. Documents destinations can be every intra-company or to external companies, i. e. , trading partners. The EDI Application Service holds each incoming and surmount document as a single internal format file. EDI converts the document to a standard format and sends it to the trading partner using the relevant communication protocol. A number of different standards and communication protocols are available. The following list describe what happens in the Application Service For outgoing documents The business application uses the callable routines to send a document from the business application to the Application Service. The document is now in the EDI system and is called internal format file. ? The Application Service sends the document in the internal format file to the Translation Service. For incoming documents ? The Application Service receives an internal format file from the Translation Service. ? The Application Service makes the data in the internal format file available in database so that the business application can fetch the document from EDI.A callable interface is used to do this. APPLICATION SERVICE File server Internal Formal File Callable RoutinesInternalFormat File Translation Service ? Converts outgoing documents from an internal format file to an agreed external format. ? Translates incoming documents from an external format to th EDI internal format file. The external document standards that a EDI system supports are EDIFACT, X12, TDCC, and ODETTE The following lists describe what happens in the Translation Service For outgoing documents The Translation Service receives a document in the internal format file from the Application Service. It converts the internal format file to the appropriate external standard (either EDIFACT, X12, TDCC, or ODETTE). The file is now an external format file. ? The Translation Service combines one or more external format files into a transmission file. ? The Translation Service now sends the transmission file to the Communication Service. For incoming documents ? The Translation Serv ice receives a document n the transmission file from the Communication Service. ? Separates the transmission file to produce external format files. It translates each external format file, which may be in an external standard (either EDIFACT, X12, TDCC, or ODETTE) to the internal format file. The file is now an internal format file. ? The translation Service now sends the internal format file to the Application Service. Communication Service The Communication Services sends and receives transmission files to and from the trading partners either directly or by using a third-party service called a Value Added Network (VAN). The following lists describe what happens in the Communication Service For outgoing documents The Communication Service receives a transmission file from the Translation Service. It checks the file to see which trading partner it has to be sent to. When it has identified the type of connection to be used for this trading partner t determines which gateway to use. ? The Communication Service sends the transmission file to the trading partner. For incoming documents ? The Communication Service receives a transmission file from the trading partner. The file arrives through one of the gateways that EDI supports. ? The Communication Service sends the transmission file to the Translation Service. familiar FORMAT FILE DOCUMENTS BUSINESS APPLICATIONS DOCUMENTS INTERNAL FORMAT FILEAPPLICATION SERVICETranslation Service ? Converts outgoing documents from an internal format file to an agreed external format. ? Translates incoming documents from an external format to the EDI internal format file. INTERNALTRANSMISSION FORMAT FILE FILE INTERNAL TRANSMISSION FORMAT FILE FILEC = CONVERTER. T =TRANSLATOR. TFB =TRANSMISSION FILE BUILDER. TFS =TRANSMISSION FILE SPLITTER. CONCLUSION By eliminating the paperbased documents the EDI was introduced. It is the new technology that overcomes the traditional paperbased documents. By using EDI we can transmit the data a t electron speed. So it is a time sparing process and also low cost as compared with telephone system. notwithstanding though there are more advantages with EDI there are some disadvantages also. To feed the data into computer, work is compulsory. By examine with computer speed human speed is a bottleneck.And also errors may occur at the time of data feeding. These errors can change the managerial decisions. Another problem if we want send more data urgently, first we feed it into computer and then send it to the destination. To feed more data requires more time. Even though the telephone cost is very high as compared to EDI process, we must use telephone installment in these cases. So in these cased we cant use EDI system. FILE SERVER CALLABLE ROUTINES MANAGEMENT port wine FILE SERVER C TFB T TFS MANAGEMENT INTERFACE